Understanding Political Process Theory

Also known as political opportunity theory, political process theory offers an explanation of the conditions, mindset, and actions that make a social movement successful in achieving its goals. According to this theory, political opportunities for change must first be present before a movement can achieve its objectives. Following that, the movement ultimately attempts to make change through the existing political structure and processes. Overview Political process theory (PPT) is considered the core theory of social movements and how they mobilize (work to create change). It was developed by  sociologists in the U.S. during the 1970s and 80s, in response to the Civil Rights, anti-war, and student movements of the 1960s. Sociologist Douglas McAdam, now a professor at Stanford University, is credited with first developing this theory via his study of the Black Civil Rights movement (see his book  Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970, published in 1982). Prior to the development of this theory, social scientists viewed members of social movements as irrational and crazed and framed them as deviants rather than political actors. Developed through careful research, political process theory disrupted that view and exposed its troubling elitist, racist, and patriarchal roots. Resource mobilization theory similarly offers an alternative view to this classical one. Since McAdam published his book outlining the theory, revisions to it have been made by him and other sociologists, so today it differs from McAdams original articulation.  As sociologist Neal Caren describes in his entry on the theory in the  Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, political process theory outlines five key components that determine the success or failure of a social movement: political opportunities, mobilizing structures, framing processes,  protest cycles, and contentious repertoires. Political opportunities  are the most important aspect of PPT, because according to the theory, without them, success for a social movement is impossible. Political opportunities--or opportunities for intervention and change within the existing political system--exist when the system experiences vulnerabilities. Vulnerabilities in the system can arise for a variety of reasons but hinge on a crisis of legitimacy wherein the populace no longer supports the social and economic conditions fostered or maintained by the system. Opportunities might be driven by  the broadening of political enfranchisement to those previously excluded (like women and people of color, historically speaking), divisions among leaders, increasing diversity within political bodies and the electorate, and a loosening of repressive structures that previously kept people from demanding change.Mobilizing structures  refer to the  already existing organizations (political or otherwise) that are present among t he community that wants change. These organizations serve as mobilizing structures for a social movement by providing membership, leadership, and communication and social networks to the budding movement. Examples include churches, community and nonprofit organizations, and student groups and schools, to name a few.Framing processes are carried out by leaders of an organization in order to allow the group or movement to  clearly and persuasively describe the existing problems, articulate why change is necessary, what changes are desired, and how one can go about achieving them. Framing processes foster the ideological buy-in among movement members, members of the political establishment, and the public at large that is necessary for a social movement to seize political opportunities and make change. McAdam and colleagues describe framing as conscious strategic efforts by groups of people to fashion shared understandings of the world and of themselves that legitimate and motivate c ollective action (see Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framing  [1996]).Protest cycles  are another important aspect of social movement success according to PPT. A protest cycle is a prolonged  period of time when opposition to the political system and acts of protest are in a heightened state. Within this theoretical perspective, protests are important expressions of the views and demands of the mobilizing structures connected to the movement and are vehicles to express the ideological frames connected to the framing process. As such, protests serve to strengthen solidarity within the movement, to raise awareness among the general public about the issues targeted by the movement, and also serve to help recruit new members.The fifth and final aspect of PPT is contentious repertoires, which refers to the set of means through which the movement makes its claims. These typically include strikes, demonstrati ons (protests), and  petitions. According to PPT, when all of these elements are present, it is possible that a social movement will be able to make changes within the existing political system that will reflect the desired outcome. Key Figures There are many sociologists who study social movements, but key figures who helped create and refine PPT include Charles Tilly,  Peter Eisinger, Sidney Tarrow, David Snow, David Meyer, and Douglas McAdam. Recommended Reading To learn more about PPT see the following resources: From Mobilization to Revolution  (1978), by Charles Tilly.Political Process Theory,  Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, by Neal Caren (2007).Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency,  (1982) by Douglas McAdam.Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framing  (1996), by Douglas McAdam and colleagues. Updated  by Nicki Lisa Cole, Ph.D.

Health Care Goes to Law School 2019

With the advent of managed care and the assortment of health care reform bills that have been voted out of Congress recently, healthcare is closing in on becoming an area of legal specialization. Some law schools now teach health law in a program format, with a series of courses available that cover various aspects of the subject. Upon completion of the requisite course hours and field work, the law student is awarded with a Certificate in Health Law to accompany his Juris Doctor on the office wall. Medical malpractice and insurance disputes have been stalwarts in the legal field for years. A newer area of legal conflict are bioethical issues which, at this point, are equally at home in the legislature as in court. Included in this area are matters such as genetic data privacy, gene- based alterations of agricultural and pharmaceutical products, and a number of medical therapies coming on line. These are public policy issues that are working their way into the courtroom. Related to these issues is the body of law that has grown around the Food and Drug Administration and, among other issues, their administration of drug development. .u3ca1a7059ce39148935e6cb2a7a50ff5 { padding:0px; margin: 0; padding-top:1em!important; padding-bottom:1em!important; width:100%; display: block; font-weight:bold; background-color:#eaeaea; border:0!important; border-left:4px solid #34495E!important; box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -moz-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -o-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -webkit-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); text-decoration:none; } .u3ca1a7059ce39148935e6cb2a7a50ff5:active, .u3ca1a7059ce39148935e6cb2a7a50ff5:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; text-decoration:none; } .u3ca1a7059ce39148935e6cb2a7a50ff5 { transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; } .u3ca1a7059ce39148935e6cb2a7a50ff5 .ctaText { font-weight:bold; color:inherit; text-decoration:none; font-size: 16px; } .u3ca1a7059ce39148935e6cb2a7a50ff5 .post Title { color:#000000; text-decoration: underline!important; font-size: 16px; } .u3ca1a7059ce39148935e6cb2a7a50ff5:hover .postTitle { text-decoration: underline!important; } READ BSB 5 Ways to Earn a Bachelor of Science in Business in as Little as 12 MonthsIndividual rights are a legal healthcare issue when in comes to compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Access to health care for the poor is a developing civil rights issue, with national advocacy groups in place and classes in law schools addressing the matter as a sole topic. The right to privacy for personal medical records has been a major political and legal concern. The passage of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) created an entire legal structure for the protection and personal control of an individuals medical records. But as with every protective measure there are exceptions, and those have led to a small but lively industry of HIPAA inspired lawsuits. Healthcare delivery and child welfare are occasionally conflicting issues that speak to parental rights and have been fought out in highly publicized trials. Withholding important medical educational information from children has also come before the courts. Public health is a major area of legal specialty, involving state and federal legislation, funding, regulation and healthcare as it relates to taxes. .u50223e76487ace9baeed62914c0c8f6c { padding:0px; margin: 0; padding-top:1em!important; padding-bottom:1em!important; width:100%; display: block; font-weight:bold; background-color:#eaeaea; border:0!important; border-left:4px solid #34495E!important; box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -moz-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -o-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -webkit-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); text-decoration:none; } .u50223e76487ace9baeed62914c0c8f6c:active, .u50223e76487ace9baeed62914c0c8f6c:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; text-decoration:none; } .u50223e76487ace9baeed62914c0c8f6c { transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; } .u50223e76487ace9baeed62914c0c8f6c .ctaText { font-weight:bold; color:inherit; text-decoration:none; font-size: 16px; } .u50223e76487ace9baeed62914c0c8f6c .post Title { color:#000000; text-decoration: underline!important; font-size: 16px; } .u50223e76487ace9baeed62914c0c8f6c:hover .postTitle { text-decoration: underline!important; } READ Prepare for Leadership Positions with a Criminal Justice Administration ProgramManaged care issues that are addressed in law school include health care financing, antitrust due to the consolidation of HMOs and equal access. Medicare and Medicaid rights are closely related to managed care, as is the issue of assumed risk for the medical personnel who work for the large and growing healthcare organizations. Fraud and system abuse have also become worthy of legal study since false insurance claims begin to emerge as a substantial problem, involving both patients and the medical community. At least one law school has an entire course dedicated to e-medicine. Among other things it covers the transmission of medical imaging and pharmaceutical practices: generally the issues are security, privacy and technology. Records transmission and claims transactions are points of discussion within the context of the internet as an active participant in the practice of medicine. Related ArticlesBSN Nursing Developmental Disabilities Nurses Care for the Physically and Mentally DisabledNebraska Colleges and Universities Pursuing Online and Campus Based Education in Nebraska, the Cornhusker StateAssociate Degree in Criminal Justice Online Graduates Have the Opportunity to Assist Inmates with Substance Abuse Issues in WisconsinDegree in Criminal Justice Use a Criminal Justice Background to Work as a ParalegalWant To Work As A Health Care ProviderHealth Care Consulting A Growing Demand .u763b9242d9673f4b155afc4de18a2d69 { padding:0px; margin: 0; padding-top:1em!important; padding-bottom:1em!important; width:100%; display: block; font-weight:bold; background-color:#eaeaea; border:0!important; border-left:4px solid #34495E!important; box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -moz-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -o-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -webkit-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); text-decoration:none; } .u763b9242d9673f4b155a fc4de18a2d69:active, .u763b9242d9673f4b155afc4de18a2d69:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; text-decoration:none; } .u763b9242d9673f4b155afc4de18a2d69 { transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; } .u763b9242d9673f4b155afc4de18a2d69 .ctaText { font-weight:bold; color:inherit; text-decoration:none; font-size: 16px; } .u763b9242d9673f4b155afc4de18a2d69 .postTitle { color:#000000; text-decoration: underline!important; font-size: 16px; } .u763b9242d9673f4b155afc4de18a2d69:hover .postTitle { text-decoration: underline!important; } READ Alternative Health Care Schools

Hierarchy and power within East and Western enterprises Free Essays

Hierarchy and power within East and Western enterprises. Introduction Culture is the way we live. It is the clothes we wear, the foods we eat, the languages we speak, the stories we tell, and the ways we celebrate. We will write a custom essay sample on Hierarchy and power within East and Western enterprises or any similar topic only for you Order Now Culture is also about our roots. Where did our ancestors come from? What do we believe? What makes our lives different from the lives of others? Kalmia, B. (2009). Nations may share civilizations, but they will always be distinct in their culture, since culture defines what they are. Scranton, R. (2007). The globalization of markets and production continues to bring together people room different cultures and countries in culturally diverse organizations. In the field of international management, it is important not only to recognize these diversities, but it is also vital to understand the cultural differences for the purpose of connecting with and motivating knowledge workers. Traditionally, these cultural distinctions have been classified into ‘eastern’ and ‘western’ views that widely vary with respect to workplace activities and, more specifically, with respect to knowledge management. With the ‘western’ view being more focused on explicit knowledge and tangible individualistic motivational factors, and the ‘eastern’ view on tacit knowledge and abstract workplace principles; it becomes evident that management of these different cultural perspectives is becoming increasingly complex yet critical in the global workplace. An understanding of these differing views is therefore necessary for effective management in the international sphere, specifically for providing a means for better cross- cultural understanding and successful knowledge transfer. Management Tasks planning- The goals and objectives Of a company or department are established, as well s determining what actions are needed to achieve. Organizing- organizing actions needed to achieve the goals. Staffing- The task of allocating employees to particular positions within the company. Directing- This has to do with leading the organization and its employees towards its goals. Controlling- Monitoring the performance of the company or department is a task for which different cultures may use different systems and approaches. Effect of cultural values on management The way tasks and responsibilities are performed in management can be examined in the light of key number of cultural values. Eight cultural value orientations have a considerable influence on the way managers perform their activities. The eight cultural values which can be called as model of culture is, Time focus (Monochromatic and polymorphic) Different cultures have different perceptions of time according to their environment, history, traditions and general practices. In eastern culture where monochromatic perception of time prevails, time is experienced and used in a linear way. People tend to do one activity at a time. For example in eastern culture, people have the diner and then do the home work or read a book. In western culture where polymorphic time is preferred ,people tend to focus on several tasks and and are less dependent on detailed information when performing these tasks. For example in western culture, people have diner whil e doing the home work or reading a book. Time focus and management tasks Monochromatic Culture (Eastern perspective) Planning- The focus of activity is more on the task itself and Making schedules. Organizing- The approach used is structured,Linear and task- focused. Staffing- Concerns focused on shorter term. Directing- Managing the inflow and Distribution of detailed information. Controlling- Tendency to Use control systems and strict deadlines. Polymorphic Culture (Western perspective) planning- The focus Of activity is more on relationships when planning. Organizing- The approach is less structured one, More holistic and people- focused. Staffing- Focus on longer term. Directing- Sharing of implicit knowledge/information. Controlling- Tendency to use more flexible control systems involving people. Time orientation (past, present and future) Culture focused on the past value the upholding tradition in line with the history of the company and the way it usually does things. Those cultures concerned with the present are out quick results and short-term gain. Those with the view towards the future, plans are assessed in the light of expected future benefit. Power (Hierarchy and Equality) The Power value orientation is to do with the extent to which the less powerful members of a society expect or accept that power is distributed unequally. At work,the level of power and authority are strictly marked out by some eastern cultures oriented to hierarchy. There ,the employees do their work according to the directives of their boss. Len eastern cultures the manager as a separate room from other employees indeed to show up the power distance between the employees and the manager. Companies in west,oriented towards equality there will be more informal structures based on expertise focused on certain projects. Len western cultures the manager works at the same table where the other staffs work. This shows the equality between the manager and the staffs. Power and management tasks Hierarchy (Eastern perspective) Planning- More autocratic or paternalistic planning is displayed. Organizing- The Organizational structure is tightly controlled. Staffing- Us borderlines expect bosses to take the initiative to train,developing promote them. Directing- Employees like being closely supervised and feel comfortable with a directive supervisor. Controlling- Employees prefer the personal control Of superiors. Equality (Western perspective) Planning- Employees may implement the plan. More participative planning. Organizing- Organizational structure encourages individual autonomy Staffing- Work relationships should not be strictly prescribed. Directing- Managers exhibit participative or consultative styles. Controlling- Subordinates develop performance objectives with their bosses. Space (private and public) One aspect of space orientation is related to private or public space. Another aspect related to invisible boundary around every person. The concept of space can be seen in terms Of personality. There can be cultural differences in the relative size of people’s public and private spaces and also in the degree to which they feel comfortable sharing those parts of their personality with other people. In Eastern workplace managers and employees do not share the same office ,but in western workplace the location or size of the place here an employee works does not necessarily reflect that persons rank in the company. The influence of personal space at work Private Planning- Forms of planning: individualistic or systematic. Organizing- More task-centered. Staffing- Explicit information about how staff are to be employed. Directing-. Managers and employees do not share the same office Controlling- Explicit measures of performance public Planning- Group-oriented or authoritative forms Organizing- Relationship-centered approaches Staffing- Implicit information Directing-. Size of the place where an employee works does not reflect the arson’s rank Controlling- Managers can use more informal checks on performance Structure (Individualism and Collectivism) Individualism Individualism, can be defined as a preference for a loosely-knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of themselves and their immediate families only. Individualism shows the extent to which cultures elevate the role of the individual over the role of the group. When individualism is valued the â€Å"I† predominates over the â€Å"we† Individual goals, initiative and achievement are most important and people are encouraged to be independent and self-reliant. Collectivism Collectivism represents a preference for a tightly-knit framework in society in which individuals can expect their relatives or members of a particular in- group to look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. Most of the Eastern cultures place more importance on personal relationships rather than the task to be performed or the deal to be completed. Example Along with the collectivist nature Of the individuals a team based behavior can be seen in the work place environments in Sir Lankan. Similarly there is a new concept which is identical within the emirates airlines which is known as the Family concept. The boss is the ‘father’ and the employees are the ‘children’. The father tells the children what to do but also looks after them and cares for them. The ‘children’ do as they are told and show their father ‘respect’. It is a two-way relationship in which all parties benefit. This can be comparable to the team based relationship oriented work place conditions in Sir Lankan. Highly individualist cultures (Western) believe individual is most important unit People taking care of themselves (including immediately family only) Self- orientation Identity based on individual Guilt culture Making decisions based on individual needs â€Å"l† mentality Emphasis on individual initiative and achievement Highly collectivist cultures (Eastern) believe group is most important unit. Expect absolute loyalty to group (nuclear family, extended family, caste, organization) Group orientation Decisions based on what is best for the group. Identity based on social system Shame culture Dependence on organization and institutions (Expects organization / institution / group to take care of individual) â€Å"We† mentality Emphasis on belonging Structure and management task Individualism (western perspective) leaning- It is expected that those involved in planning will take initiative to present their views. Organizing-Tasks assignment and resources allocation. Staffing- Organizations are not expected to look after their employees career development. Directing-Leaders expect employees to meet or exceed their responsibilities. Controlling- Control tends to be exerted by individual standards of excellence. Collectivism (Eastern perspective) Planning- plans are developed within the shared values used for measuring activities in the organizations. Organizing- organizational structures emphasize he group; the team is assigned tasks and resources. Staffing- promotions are are based primarily on seniority. Directing- Leaders expect loyalty in exchange for protection. Controlling- Deviations from standards and expectations is discouraged through group oriented pressure. Conclusion General management and knowledge management theories and practices have to be viewed and reviewed in the context of local cultures. In an organization, the managers bring values, experiences and beliefs that are profoundly rooted in their national cultures. Even the perspective of hat management actually entails varies widely across different national cultures. The model of culture has been applied to the world of international business and the daily tasks of a manager examined in terms of cultural values. Individual’s frame work of cultural preferences influences the way in which their tasks are executed. Management tasks in the firms varies according to the culture Management tasks in western enterprises varies from the management tasks that are carried out by eastern enterprises. Additional studies must be undertaken to have a thorough understanding of the cultural rabbles. Without Andean different perspectives from the traditional and AC opted frameworks, such as Hypotheses dimensions, organizations cannot leverage the strengths of the global economy, which can make the difference between survival and success for today’s firms. How to cite Hierarchy and power within East and Western enterprises, Papers

The Indian Removal Act free essay sample

They traveled in many different ways of transportation such as foot, horse, and wagon. Though many are informed of the horror of the Indian Removal Acts, the public seemed to have encourage it and not care about the condition Of the Indians that were being moved which was as tragic as any part of American History. The publics view of the Indian Removal Act was very lenient. They did not protest or object the cruel things that Andrew Jackson was doing. Some of the cruel things being; treating Indians poorly, destroying the bank, and threatening to kill his vice president.The main reason for their carelessness as that they in fact wanted the Indians to leave. The main reasons for them wanting the Indians to leave was more shelter, more land, and more job opportunities. As they were kicking the Natives out of their homes, just moments later new, white, Americans moved right in as the Native families watch another family move into their house (CORBA). Today, we can prove that the public promptly did not care about the Natives because they kept their president, Andrew Jackson, in office as the acts were being passed. In the Election of 1 832, Jackson won by a landslide with 219 electoral votes. The second place loser, Henry Clay, received only 49 electoral votes (1 832 Presidential Election). Obviously, if anyone wanted to change what was going on, Andrew Jackson would not have stayed in office. The government had a prominent role in the Indian Removal Acts. The leader of it all was President Andrew Jackson. Out of all of the eleven treaties signed to move the southern tribes, Andrew Jackson signed nine of them(PBS. Org). The tribes agreed to the terms so they could avoid problems such as harassment, and hopefully maintain some of their land and also for strategic reasons. Jacksons attitude toward Native Americans was authorizing, he described the Natives as children in need of guidance; he also believe the removal policy was beneficial to the Indians(PBS. Org). Although, the leader, Andrew Jackson was in charge of the government, the entire government did not support everything that was being done. In rage of everything that was being done, the Cherokee Nation took a case to court opposing one Of Jacksons bill to move the Indians out west. After the trial, the Cherokee won the case in favor of nine votes to zero.To show Jacksons power, a quote used by him was The Supreme Court has made their session, now let me see them try to enforce it. (learnable. Org). This showed a failure of the checks and balance system. In order to bribe the Indians out of their homeland, the government promised the Indians things such as money, land, and freedom once they got out to their new home in present day Oklahoma. When the Indians got their however, they got nothing in return and were stuck with nothing out west. On top of the government sending them away, the government would indeed give them land to live on.They would be deceitful and put rival tribes close to one another to cause ensign between the two. This would make the Native population decrease even more as wars would break out. In the eyes of the Natives, this was terrible as one may assume. Some of the tribes listened to the government and signed treaties with no argument, but others did not go away as easy as the government preferred. Not many tribes took action to stop this, but the ones who did were still unsuccessful. Even though the Cherokee won their court case, nothing was done in their favor.Other southern tribes such as the Creek, Seminole, Chickasaws, and Chaotic also were against the acts. The Creek nation Was forced out because the Secretary of War said it was a military necessity (PBS. Org). This is one of the many nations that did not seem to fight back with the government; no removal treaties were ever signed (PBS. Org). By 1837, 1 5,000 Creek Indians moved out west by order of the government. The Chickasaws group realized that there was no way around the movement, and without any protest, signed a Treaty in 1832.The treaty stated that the federal government would provide them with valuable land they would be able to live easily with (PBS. Org). The plan of the Chickasaws of appeasing to the government backfired when the War Department ended up backing down on its promise. Since so many Natives were sent from one place to another, a common trail was traveled to get to the destination Of present day Oklahoma. The terrible trail is called the Trail of Tears; nearly 125,000 Natives traveled this path (history. Com).This trail covered 2,200 miles of land and sea. The Cherokee were the most known for their view on the Trail of Tears. They had two very different views on leaving their territory however, one side wanted to stay ND fight, while the other side wanted to just appease to the government and accept the money and land they were offered for leaving (history. Com). A soldier of the name John G. Burnett was acquainted with the Cherokee after he had spent a lot of time hunting and traveling with the tribe.He stated that the day the tribe was forced out was very hard and even quoted that One can never forget the sadness and solemnity of that morning. (learn. Org). During their journey, on the day of March 26th, 1839, a horrific snow and sleet storm hit them hard, and the sufferings of the Cherokee were hard to e. Another thing said by Burnett was that It was a trail Of death, which really goes to show that so many people lost their life because of the governments cruel enforcement of moving the Native Americans out west. The trail is said to have killed around 4,000 Cherokee. It was said that up to one third of the Cherokee nation was killed (learnable. Org). As one may know, there are still remaining Cherokee tribes around today. They are scarred from this time of American History. They see it as unconstitutional, unjust, and are very upset on the fact that nothing was done in their favor. Many may not know that the Cherokee has their own government now and lives in areas such as Nevada, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico (Cherokee. Org) So as one may see, there were many different views on the Indian Removal Acts and the government was a major cause. Not many of the citizens in the public seemed to care about how the Indians were treated and nothing was done to stop treating them poorly. The people did not try and get rid of the main person who leads it all, Andrew Jackson, they kept him in office and did not speak out against anything he did over his eight years in office. As most can see, the Indian Removal Acts were completely unconstitutional and were a very bad time in the years of America.